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Modern Chinese History Review Materials

1. Causes and Lessons of China's Failure in Anti-Aggression Wars​

Causes:

  • Corruption of the social system: After 1840, China's feudal society gradually became a semi-colonial, semi-feudal society. The Qing Dynasty ruling China, from the emperor to the nobility, was mostly ignorant and unaware of world affairs and lacked strategies for resisting enemies. During the Opium War, Lin Zexu and others who had meritorious service in banning opium and resisting Britain were dismissed, while Qi Shan and others who advocated compromise with the enemy were promoted.
  • Backwardness in economy and technology: Another important reason for the failure of modern China's anti-aggression wars was the backwardness of the nation's comprehensive strength, especially in economy, technology, and military capability. In the mid-19th century, Western capitalist powers had undergone the Industrial Revolution, achieving rapid economic and technological development, while feudal China had long fallen behind.

Lessons:

  • One must recognize that backwardness leads to being beaten;
  • In modern China, the semi-colonial, semi-feudal social system had to be changed;
  • The self-rescue movements of feudal rulers could not make the nation prosperous and strong;
  • The path of bourgeois reform was not viable in China;
  • A path suited to national conditions must be chosen.

2. The Social Nature, Main Contradictions, and Historical Tasks of Modern China​

  • Social nature: Semi-colonial, semi-feudal society.
  • Main contradictions: The contradiction between imperialism and the Chinese nation (the most important), and the contradiction between feudalism and the broad masses of the people.
  • Historical tasks: Two tasks — striving for national independence and people's liberation, and achieving national prosperity and people's well-being.

3. Three Propositions and Plans for Early Exploration of National Paths​

  1. The peasant class's anti-imperialist, anti-feudal Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement.
    • Advocated opposing the corrupt rule of the Qing government and landlord class oppression and exploitation. The "Land System of the Heavenly Dynasty" established a plan for equal land distribution; "A New Treatise on Aids to Administration" was a social development plan promulgated in the later period of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement.
  2. The landlord class's Westernization Movement
    • Advocated introducing and imitating Western weaponry and equipment and learning Western science and technology, establishing modern enterprises and conducting Westernization affairs. The plan was: establishing modern enterprises; building new-style naval and army forces; founding new-style schools and sending students abroad.
  3. The bourgeois Reform Movement
    • Advocated not only learning Western science and technology but also learning Western capitalist political systems and ideological culture. Plans included petitioning the emperor, writing books, introducing foreign reform experiences and lessons, establishing societies, founding schools, and running newspapers.

4. Causes and Lessons of the Failures of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, Westernization Movement, and Reform Movement​

  1. Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement

    • Significance:

      1. Dealt a heavy blow to the feudal ruling class and strongly shook the foundations of Qing government rule.
      2. Was the highest peak of China's old-style peasant wars.
      3. Challenged the orthodox authority of Confucius and Confucian classics.
      4. Dealt a powerful blow to foreign aggressive forces.

    • Causes of failure:

      1. The limitations of the peasant class.
      2. The growth of corruption within the leadership group.
      3. Inability to maintain long-term unity within the leadership group.
      4. The joint suppression by Chinese and foreign reactionary forces.
      5. Inability to formulate advanced regulations and charters.
      6. Backwardness of weapons and equipment.

      The peasant class was not the representative of new productive forces and production relations. It could not overcome the inherent class limitations of small producers, lacked the guidance of scientific thought and theory, and had no advanced class leadership, thus fundamentally unable to put forward a complete and correct political program and social reform plan.

    • Lessons:

      Although peasants have great potential, relying solely on peasant wars cannot accomplish the historical task of striving for national independence and people's liberation.

  2. Westernization Movement

    • Significance:

      1. Proposed the advocacy of "self-strengthening" and "seeking wealth."
      2. Prioritized the development of military industry and developed several civilian enterprises. Promoted the modernization of China's military.
      3. Established a number of new-style schools.
      4. Had a catalytic effect on the emergence of modern Chinese national capitalism.
      5. To a certain extent, resisted foreign capitalism.

    • Causes of failure:

      1. The Westernization Movement had a feudal nature.
      2. The Westernization Movement was dependent on foreign countries.
      3. The management of Westernization enterprises was corrupt.

      The feudal guiding ideology of "Chinese learning as the substance, Western learning for application" attempted to use Western modern production technology as a means to maintain and consolidate Chinese feudal rule. It was dependent on foreign powers, attempting to achieve "self-strengthening" and "seeking wealth" through reliance on foreign countries, which was tantamount to negotiating with a tiger for its skin. The management was corrupt — although some new enterprises established by the Westernization faction had certain capitalist characteristics, the management was still feudal government-style.

    • Lessons:

      Westernization talents needed to be cultivated, and the feudal system had to be changed. Foreign dependence was not acceptable; self-reliance was needed, and new management systems had to be given to new enterprises.

  3. Reform Movement

    • Significance:

      1. The Reform Movement was a patriotic national salvation movement.
      2. The Reform Movement was a bourgeois political reform movement.
      3. The Reform Movement was even more an ideological enlightenment movement.

    • Causes of failure:

      1. Its own limitations: ① Did not dare to negate feudalism. ② Had illusions about imperialism. ③ Feared the masses. ④ The inherent weakness of the bourgeoisie.

      2. The opposition of powerful conservative forces headed by Empress Dowager Cixi.

      The main reasons were the limitations of the reformers themselves and the opposition of powerful conservative forces headed by Empress Dowager Cixi. The political representatives of the national bourgeoisie, the reformers, were weak in strength. They had no strict organization, did not hold real power or military forces, and did not mobilize the masses.

    • Lessons:

      In semi-colonial, semi-feudal old China, to achieve national independence, democracy, and prosperity, revolutionary means must be used to overthrow the semi-colonial, semi-feudal society under the joint rule of imperialism and feudalism.

5. Social and Historical Conditions for the Outbreak of the Revolution of 1911​

  1. Deepening national crisis and intensifying social contradictions. After the failure of the Reform Movement, the revolutionary faction represented by Sun Yat-sen launched a bourgeois revolutionary movement in China. The occurrence of this movement was the result of deepening national crisis and intensifying social contradictions, and was inevitable.
  2. The "New Policies" of the late Qing and their bankruptcy. During the period of revolutionary preparation, the Qing government was in dire straits both internally and externally. The signing of the "Boxer Protocol" marked the Qing government's abandonment of the idea of resisting foreign aggression, willing to become a "court for foreigners."

6. Historical Significance, Causes of Failure, and Lessons of the Revolution of 1911​

Historical significance:

  1. The Revolution of 1911 overthrew the rule of the Qing Dynasty, the political representative of feudal forces and the agent of imperialism in China, dealing a heavy blow to Chinese and foreign reactionary forces.
  2. It ended more than two thousand years of feudal monarchical autocracy in China, established the first bourgeois republican government in Chinese history, and made the concept of democratic republic begin to take root in people's hearts.
  3. It promoted the ideological liberation of the people.

7. Causes and Methods of China's Advanced Elements Choosing Marxism During the May Fourth Period​

Causes:

  1. The failure of the bourgeois democratic republican ideal pursuit.
  2. The wave of anti-capitalism worldwide and the turn of Chinese intellectual circles.
  3. China's advanced elements repeatedly compared and sought through study, practice, and debate, ultimately establishing Marxist faith.
  4. The influence of the Russian October Revolution.

Methods:

  • From accepting evolution theory to accepting materialist views;
  • From accepting anarchism to accepting scientific socialism;
  • From accepting pragmatist methodology to accepting materialist dialectics;
  • Chinese people accepted Marxism through Leninism.

8. Conditions and Significance of the Birth of the Chinese Communist Party​

Conditions:

  • The growth of the working class and the development of the labor movement laid the foundation for the spread of Marxism and the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party;
  • The May Fourth Movement promoted the development of the New Culture Movement to a new stage, with the spread of Marxism becoming the mainstream, laying the ideological foundation for the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party;
  • The establishment of early Communist organizations in various places further promoted the combination of Marxism with the labor movement, laying the organizational foundation for the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party.

Significance:

  • Profoundly changed the direction and process of the Chinese nation's development after modern times, profoundly changed the future and destiny of the Chinese people and the Chinese nation, and profoundly changed the trend and pattern of world development.

9. The Chinese Communist Party's Exploration of New Paths for the Chinese Revolution​

  1. Carrying out armed struggle against Kuomintang rule. The August 7th Conference thoroughly liquidated Chen Duxiu's right-opportunist errors in the later period of the Great Revolution and established the general policy of carrying out agrarian revolution and armed resistance against Kuomintang reactionary rule.
  2. Taking the revolutionary path of encircling cities from the countryside and seizing political power through armed struggle.
  3. Mao Zedong not only first directed the direction of revolutionary attack toward the countryside in practice but also theoretically expounded the extreme importance of armed struggle and that the countryside should become the center of the Party's work.

10. Causes and Harms of Three "Left" Deviations Within the Chinese Communist Party​

Causes:

  • Failure to fully and correctly integrate Marxism-Leninism with China's reality, with insufficient understanding of China's historical situation and social conditions;
  • The Communist International's wrong interference and blind direction in the internal affairs of the Chinese Communist Party;
  • After the August 7th Conference, a strong "left" sentiment had always existed within the Party and was never seriously cleaned up;
  • The emergence within the Party of dogmatism that only focused on book knowledge and not on practice, and empiricism that only focused on perceptual knowledge while belittling theory.

Harms:

  • Caused the Red Army to fail in the fifth counter-"encirclement" campaign, having to withdraw from southern base areas and carry out strategic transfer — the Long March.
  • Political turmoil, economic recession, ideological confusion, cultural decline, technological backwardness, declining comprehensive national power, and the people suffering in dire straits.

11. Evaluation of the Front Battlefield and the Behind-Enemy-Lines Battlefield​

  • The Kuomintang front battlefield was the main force in the War of Resistance. Due to the tenacious resistance on the front battlefield, Japan's strategic plan to destroy China in three months and its strategy of quick victory were shattered. This supported the opening of the behind-enemy-lines battlefield in the liberated areas led by the Communist Party of China, creating favorable conditions for guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines. It strengthened the conviction of Chinese military and civilians that resistance would prevail.
  • The Communist Party of China mainly operated on the behind-enemy-lines battlefield. In the early and middle stages of the War of Resistance, guerrilla warfare was elevated to strategic significance with overall importance.
  • During the strategic defense phase, the Kuomintang's regular warfare on the front battlefield was the main form, while guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines was supplementary. During the strategic stalemate phase, guerrilla warfare behind enemy lines became the primary form of anti-Japanese combat. Both played indispensable roles.

12. Causes, Significance, and Experience of the Victory of the War of Resistance Against Japan​

Causes:

  • The Communist Party of China played a mainstay role in the national War of Resistance.
  • The great national awakening, unprecedented national unity, and heroic national resistance of the Chinese people.
  • The sympathy and support of all peace-loving nations and peoples, international organizations, and various anti-fascist forces worldwide.

Significance:

  • Thoroughly defeated the Japanese invaders, defended China's national sovereignty and territorial integrity, and saved the Chinese nation from the fate of colonial enslavement.
  • Promoted the awakening of the Chinese nation, bringing the spiritual and organizational progress of the Chinese people to unprecedented heights.
  • Promoted the great unity of the Chinese nation and carried forward the great spirit of the Chinese nation.
  • Had a tremendous impact on countries around the world in winning the war against fascism and the great cause of maintaining world peace.

Experience:

  • The great unity of all ethnic groups across the country is the source of strength for the Chinese people to overcome all hardships and achieve their goals;
  • The great national spirit centered on patriotism is the spiritual driving force for the Chinese people to unite and forge ahead;
  • Improving comprehensive national power is the fundamental guarantee for the Chinese nation to stand among the nations of the world;
  • Only by upholding the leadership of the Communist Party can the Chinese nation defend its rights to survival and development and create a better future.

13. Three Construction Plans for China in the Early Post-War Period​

  1. The landlord-comprador bourgeoisie plan: Advocated continuing the military dictatorship of the landlord-comprador bourgeoisie and adhering to the path of semi-colonial, semi-feudal society.
  2. The national bourgeoisie plan: Advocated establishing a genuine bourgeois republic so that capitalism could develop freely and fully, making China an independent capitalist society.
  3. The Communist Party of China advocated establishing a new democratic state led by the proletariat with the broad masses of the people, and through building a people's republic, reaching socialism and communist society.

14. Causes, Significance, and Experience of the Victory of the Chinese Revolution​

Causes:

  • The correct leadership of the Communist Party of China;
  • The broad participation and strong support of the masses of the people;
  • The assistance of the international proletariat and peoples.

Significance:

  • The victory of the Chinese Revolution marked the end of more than a century of humiliation and division in China. The new democratic New China that the people hoped for — independent and unified — was about to be born.
  • It ended the rule of imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucrat-capitalism in China and established New China with the system of people's democratic dictatorship.
  • The victory of the Chinese Revolution also had a tremendous impact on the development of world history. It broke through the Eastern front of imperialism, dealing a fatal blow to the imperialist colonial system and greatly changing the balance of political forces in the world.

Experience:

  • Must adhere to the correct direction of combining the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution;
  • Must firmly believe that without the Communist Party, there would be no New China;
  • Establishing the broadest revolutionary united front was the foundation for the victory of the Chinese revolution;
  • Uphold armed revolutionary struggle.
  • Implement the system of people's democratic dictatorship.

15. Fundamental Factors for China's Choice of Socialism​

  1. Socialism best suited China's actual needs. The Chinese revolution guided by socialist thought and theory represented the overall interests of the Chinese nation, especially the fundamental interests of the workers and peasants who constituted the majority of the population.
  2. Socialism provided the transformation goal for modern China — achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
  3. Socialism aligned with the civilizational ideals of traditional China.
  4. The tasks and development path of industrialization.
  5. The general line for the transition period reflected the inevitability of history.

16. Characteristics and Significance of Socialist Transformation​

Characteristics:

  • Socialist industrialization and socialist transformation carried out simultaneously.

  • Development of the agricultural cooperative movement.

  • Implementation of the redemption policy for capitalist industry and commerce.

  • The comprehensive establishment of the basic socialist system in China.

  • Enriched and developed the scientific socialist theory of Marxism-Leninism in both theory and practice, greatly promoting social transformation in industry, agriculture, and commerce and the economic development of the entire country;

  • Accomplished the task of transforming private ownership of the means of production into socialist public ownership;

  • Politically, the basic socialist system was initially established in China;

  • Economically, the socialist planned economy was basically established in China;

  • Opened the way for China's socialist industrialization.

Significance:

  • First, socialist public ownership has become the economic foundation of China.

  • Second, the exploiting class as a class has been eliminated or is being eliminated.

  • Third, the foundation for socialist industrialization has been initially laid.

  • The victory of socialist transformation laid the foundation and opened the way for China's comprehensive socialist construction. Social productive forces were liberated from the constraints of old production relations, paving the way for achieving faster and better modernization development under socialist conditions than under capitalism.

17. Early Achievements in Exploring the Socialist Path​

  1. Established an independent and relatively complete industrial system and national economic system.
  2. Improvement in people's living standards and development of culture, education, healthcare, and science and technology. Safeguarded the needs of people's lives; improved people's cultural quality and health levels; achieved a number of important scientific and technological results.
  3. Enhancement of international status and improvement of the international environment.
  4. Several important principles for building socialism formed during the exploration.

18. Errors Made During Exploration and Their Root Causes​

Errors:

  1. The Great Leap Forward. The people urgently demanded changes to the backward economic situation; the Party leadership was impatient for results and ignored objective laws; after the domestic "rightist" struggle expanded, enlightened individuals dared not voice opposition.
  2. The People's Communes. The Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, at the Beidaihe Meeting, adopted a resolution on establishing people's communes in rural areas, requiring all regions to quickly convert small cooperatives into large ones and transform them into people's communes.
  3. The Cultural Revolution. Originally aimed at opposing revisionism, preventing capitalist restoration, maintaining the Party's purity, and seeking China's own socialist construction path. Under the guiding ideology of "taking class struggle as the key link," Mao Zedong made serious erroneous assessments of the domestic class struggle situation and the political conditions of the Party and the state.

Root causes:

Insufficient ideological preparation and scientific research for the rapidly arriving new socialist system and the nationwide socialist construction. Issues that no longer belonged to class struggle were still regarded as class struggle.

19. Great Achievements of Reform, Opening Up, and Modernization​

  • Significant improvement in comprehensive national power and international competitiveness;
  • People's living standards generally reached a moderately prosperous level;
  • Major progress in economic system reform and opening up to the outside world;
  • Steady progress in socialist democracy construction, with democratic and religious policies fully implemented;
  • Significant progress in the cause of national reunification;
  • Comprehensive advancement of the new great project of Party building.

20. Causes and Experience of the Great Achievements of Reform, Opening Up, and Modernization​

Causes:

  • Opened up the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics and formed the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics.

Experience:

  • The path of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the necessary path for realizing socialist modernization.
  • Must adhere to combining the basic theory of Marxism with advancing the sinicization of Marxism, emancipating the mind, seeking truth from facts, and keeping pace with the times;
  • Must adhere to combining the Four Cardinal Principles with reform and opening up;
  • Must adhere to governing for the people, closely relying on the people, and truly benefiting the people;
  • Must adhere to combining the promotion of the basic socialist system with the development of the market economy.